Qualiter in Scythia religatus rupe Prometheus adsiduam nimio pectore pauit auem, nuda Caledonio sic uiscera praebuit urso non falsa pendens in cruce Laureolus. uiurbant laceri membris stillantibus artus inque omni nusquam corpore corpus erat. deinque supplicium <meruit quo crimine tantum?> uel domini iugulum foderat ense nocens, templa uel arcano demens spoliauerat auro, subdiderat saeuas uel tibi, Roma, faces. uicerat antiquae sceleratus crimina famae, in quo, quae fuerat fabula, poena fuit.
Just as Prometheus, chained on a rocky Scythian crag, fed the tireless bird on his abundant chest, so Laureolus hanging on no false cross, gave up his defenseless entrails to a Caledonian bear. His mangled limbs were alive dripping (with blood) and in his whole body there was no body. Then <what great crime merited such> punishment? Either lamenting he had stabbed his master in the throat with a sword or being mad he had robbed a temple of its gold hoard, or stealthy he had set on you with savage torches, Rome. This wicked man had surpassed the crimes of old tales, in this instance, what had been story, was (actually) punishment.
-Martial. Liber Spectaculorum. 9.
Ludi Meridiani - Executions
The Ludi meridiani were held during the mid-day in the interim in between the venationes and the gladiatorial combats. This event involved the execution of condemned criminals and Christians. Damnatio ad Bestias refers to those condemned to death by the beasts, an activity which took place in the Republican period, but which gained increased popularity in the Imperial era. As evidenced by the images on surviving Roman mosaics, the Romans were extremely creative in their methods of execution, using a wide variety of wild animals in order to publicly execute those who had violated the law. Those condemned to die were led into the arena fully or partially naked, without weaponry or means of defense. Often they were also hindered by fetters or other means of restraint, leaving them open victims for the predators released upon them. Those overseeing this form of execution were referred to as bestiarii. These individuals would oversee the executions and ensure that the animals set upon the victims by 'encouraging' them with firebrands and whips.
Death by wild animal was not the only form of execution used, executioners (confector) could be brought in to finish off the condemned and in other cases the condemned may have been forced to execute one another (Seneca. Letters. 7). In order to increase the entertianment aspect of this event, the condemned at times took part in mythical reenactments referred to as 'fatal charades' (see Coleman. “Fatal Charades,” (1990): 44-73). After the condemned were dead the final act of humiliation was the removal of their corpses from the arena. These were dragged from the arena using hooks, their bodies subsequently being denied the proper pagan burial rites (Kyle. Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World, 327).
The inclusion of executions in the arena was yet another public display of Roman supremacy and was demonstrative of their power over life or death. This spectacle was seen as a necessary form of social control and a deterrent against future crimes. Those condemned to the arena in this way would not be granted missio (pardon), their purpose in this spectacle was to die. Moreover, it must be kept in mind that Rome did not have large scale prisons to house criminals, therefore this form of punishment served a practical as well as political function. In terms of the execution of Christians, these individuals were seen as a great threat to Roman society for their disbelief in the pagan gods and their upheaval of Roman social order. This ideology faded towards the end of the empire as Christianity became more accepted, especially after the first Christian Emperor Constantine I (see the Edict of Milan).
Selected list of primary sources on executions:
Gellius, Aulus. Attic Nights. 5.14.
Lucian. The Ass. 52-53.
Martial. Spectacles. 9, 10, 24.
Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas.
Plutarch. Moral Essays. 554b.
Seneca. Letters. 7.
Strabo. Geography. 6.2.
Tertullian. Apology. 15.4-6.
Photograph (top above): detail of the Zliten mosaic, Villa of Dar Buc Ammera.
The Ludi meridiani were held during the mid-day in the interim in between the venationes and the gladiatorial combats. This event involved the execution of condemned criminals and Christians. Damnatio ad Bestias refers to those condemned to death by the beasts, an activity which took place in the Republican period, but which gained increased popularity in the Imperial era. As evidenced by the images on surviving Roman mosaics, the Romans were extremely creative in their methods of execution, using a wide variety of wild animals in order to publicly execute those who had violated the law. Those condemned to die were led into the arena fully or partially naked, without weaponry or means of defense. Often they were also hindered by fetters or other means of restraint, leaving them open victims for the predators released upon them. Those overseeing this form of execution were referred to as bestiarii. These individuals would oversee the executions and ensure that the animals set upon the victims by 'encouraging' them with firebrands and whips.
Death by wild animal was not the only form of execution used, executioners (confector) could be brought in to finish off the condemned and in other cases the condemned may have been forced to execute one another (Seneca. Letters. 7). In order to increase the entertianment aspect of this event, the condemned at times took part in mythical reenactments referred to as 'fatal charades' (see Coleman. “Fatal Charades,” (1990): 44-73). After the condemned were dead the final act of humiliation was the removal of their corpses from the arena. These were dragged from the arena using hooks, their bodies subsequently being denied the proper pagan burial rites (Kyle. Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World, 327).
The inclusion of executions in the arena was yet another public display of Roman supremacy and was demonstrative of their power over life or death. This spectacle was seen as a necessary form of social control and a deterrent against future crimes. Those condemned to the arena in this way would not be granted missio (pardon), their purpose in this spectacle was to die. Moreover, it must be kept in mind that Rome did not have large scale prisons to house criminals, therefore this form of punishment served a practical as well as political function. In terms of the execution of Christians, these individuals were seen as a great threat to Roman society for their disbelief in the pagan gods and their upheaval of Roman social order. This ideology faded towards the end of the empire as Christianity became more accepted, especially after the first Christian Emperor Constantine I (see the Edict of Milan).
Selected list of primary sources on executions:
Gellius, Aulus. Attic Nights. 5.14.
Lucian. The Ass. 52-53.
Martial. Spectacles. 9, 10, 24.
Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas.
Plutarch. Moral Essays. 554b.
Seneca. Letters. 7.
Strabo. Geography. 6.2.
Tertullian. Apology. 15.4-6.
Photograph (top above): detail of the Zliten mosaic, Villa of Dar Buc Ammera.